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As part of the development of e-market places, contract manufacturers have been actively supporting new Application Service Providers (ASP) in the electronics design field. Their software concepts go beyond mere part-trading. Design-ASPs develop database systems which integrate parts purchasing with the design process and product introduction at the assembly-line level. Start-up companies like Silicon Valley-based Spin Circuit are promoting data-exchange systems for the design of printed circuit boards and hardware, bringing together OEMs, parts producers, distributors, and contract manufacturers. These design gateways promise seamless interfaces between product designers, manufacturing engineers, and parts suppliers who all will become part of a single internet-based exchange system. Design engineers may even be able to change their product lay-outs according to the cost and availability of parts tracked in online-databases. Some contract manufacturers are heavily supporting start-ups in this field because early participation seems to offer the opportunity to control crucial nodes in global Internet-based manufacturing networks.

The future impact of the integration of component design and trade on supplier networks and on manufacturing and engineering work is still difficult to assess. The suggestion seems plausible, however, that global electronics parts and component markets will foster the de-localization of sourcing relationships which is already characteristic for the contract manufacturing industry. On the labor side, we may expect substantial rationalization of engineering work, an increased separation of product and process engineering, and a diminished role for personalized cooperation between product and manufacturing engineers within local industry-networks. In qualitative terms, engineering work may become still more oriented towards non-technical, commercial factors like cost and parts availability. It may also mean increased competition for engineers in developed countries from outsourcing of engineering work to low-cost regions. However, such a development will mainly reinforce existing trends, since contract manufacturers are actively making use of local engineering talent which in some locations, especially in Eastern Europe, is widely available.

The unique characteristics of manufacturing work in the CM industry rather result from the nature of integration into the global value chains of the IT-industry. Some basic characteristics of CM-work can be summarized as follows:

• “Work without a product”: as CM-plants do not manufacture their “own” products, quality management and workplace control has to be refocused on customer orientation. Manufacturing has to be organized as “service work”;

• Relatively low wages with high variable proportions: as most CM-plants are located in low-cost areas, manufacturing wages and benefits are rather modest, and bonus-oriented pay-systems (including stock ownership and options) have to ensure customer orientation;

• Labor flexibility: The constant and very rapid change in production volumes is managed by an extensive use of various kinds of flexible employment.

• Quality management based on restricted teamwork: in most plants there is an ideology of “team orientation”, but no formal structure of work groups etc., as known from team concepts in other industries; and

• A heavy reliance on women and minority workers: as in most areas of electronics manufacturing, the majority of the manufacturing workforce is female. In the U.S., in California in particular, the workforce is mainly recruited from ethnic minorities in disadvantaged labor market positions.

Much has been written about poor school lunch choices and children’s lack of adequate exercise and financial illiteracy.  Not surprisingly, some schools have started to implement (or reinstate) physical education and personal finance programs and are reporting positive behavior changes as a result.  Many more schools, however, need to offer these programs.

Just as children can be reached with health and personal finance programs at school, employer-sponsored programs can enhance adults’ knowledge and prompt behavioral changes.  Examples of health initiatives include a company gym or exercise program, healthy vending machine or cafeteria options, and health screenings.  These supports are especially important when a high number of workers commute long distances.  A widely quoted 2004 study of Atlanta, GA area commuters found that, for every 30 minutes that commuters drive, they have a 3% greater chance of being overweight.

Arbitration

Whenever the bus is free, any unit may start to transmit a message. If 2 or more units start transmitting messages at the same time, the bus access conflict is resolved by bitwise arbitration using the IDENTIFIER. The mechanism of arbitration guarantees that neither information nor time is lost. If a DATA FRAME and a REMOTE FRAME with the same IDENTIFIER are initiated at the same time, the DATA FRAME prevails over the REMOTE FRAME. During arbitration every transmitter compares the level of the bit transmitted with the level that is monitored on the bus. If these levels are equal the unit may continue to send. When a ’recessive’ level is sent and a ’dominant’ level is monitored (see Bus Values), the unit has lost arbitration and must withdraw without sending one more bit.

Sleep Mode / Wake-up

To reduce the system’s power consumption, a CAN-device may be set into sleep mode with-out any internal activity and with disconnected bus drivers. The sleep mode is finished with a wake-up by any bus activity or by internal conditions of the system. On wake-up, the internal activity is restarted, although the transfer layer will be waiting for the system’s oscillator to stabilize and it will then wait until it has synchronized itself to the bus activity (by checking for eleven consecutive ’recessive’ bits), before the bus drivers are set to “onbus” again. In order to wake up other nodes of the system, which are in sleep-mode, a special wake-up message with the dedicated, lowest possible IDENTIFIER (rrr rrrd rrrr; r = ’recessive’, d = ’dominant’) may be used.

Whenever interrupts are used, the programmer MUST ensure there will be enough stack space. Ensure the size of the stack required by the interrupt plus the size of the stack already used by main() wherever interrupts are enabled is less than 9. This can be seen at the top of the list file. The compiler does not permit recursive calls to functions because the RISC instruction set does not provide an efficient means to implement a traditional C stack. All RAM locations required for a given function are allocated to a specific address at link time in such a way that RAM is re-used between functions not active at the same time. This prohibits recursion. For example, the main() function may call a function A() and A() may call B() but B() may NOT call main(), A() or B(). An interrupt may come in at any time, which poses a special problem. Consider the interrupt function called ISR() that calls the function A() just like main() calls A(). If the function A() is executing because main() called it and then the ISR() activates, recursion will have happened. In order to prevent the above problem, the compiler will “protect” the function call to A() from main() by disabling all interrupts before the call to A() and restoring the interrupt state after A() returns. In doing so, the compiler can allow complete sharing of functions between the main program and the interrupt functions.

The programmer must take the following special considerations into account:

1. In the above example, interrupts will be disabled for the entire execution of A(). This will increase the interrupt latency depending on the execution time of A().

2. If the function A() changes the interrupts using ENABLE/DISABLE _INTERRUPTS then the effect may be lost upon the return from A(), since the entire INTCON register is saved before A() is called and restored afterwards. Furthermore, if the global interrupt flag is enabled in A(), the program may execute incorrectly.

3. A program should not depend on the interrupts being disabled in the above situation. The compiler may NOT disable interrupts when the function or any function it calls requires no local RAM.

4. The interrupts may be disabled, as described above for internal compiler functions called by the same manor. For example, multiplication invoked by a simple * may have this effect.

The use of TRIS causes concern for some users. The Microchip data sheets recommend not using TRIS instructions for upward compatibility. If you had existing ASM code and it used TRIS then it would be more difficult to port to a new Microchip part without TRIS. C does not have this problem, however; the compiler has a device database that indicates specific characteristics for every part. This includes information on whether the part has a TRIS and a list of known problems with the part. The latter question is answered by looking at the device errata.

CCS makes every attempt to add new devices and device revisions as the data and errata sheets become available.
PCW users can edit the device database. If the use of TRIS is a concern, simply change the database entry for your part and the compiler will not use it.

The list file is produced to show the assembly code created for the C source code. Each C source line has the corresponding assembly lines under it to show the compiler’s work. The following three special cases make the .LST file look strange to the first time viewer. Understanding how the compiler is working in these special cases will make the .LST file appear quite normal and very useful.Some of the code generated by the compiler does not correspond to any particular source line. The compiler will put this code either near the top of the program or sometimes under a #USE that caused subroutines to be generated.

2. The addresses are out of order.

The compiler will create the .LST file in the order of the C source code. The linker has re-arranged the code to properly fit the functions into the best code pages and the best half of a code page. The resulting code is not in source order. Whenever the compiler has a discontinuity in the .LST file, it will put a * line in the file. This is most often seen between functions and in places where INLINE functions are called. In the case of a INLINE function, the addresses will continue in order up where the source for the INLINE function is located.

3. The compiler has gone insane and generated the same instruction over and
over.